Muhammad’s Prophethood: An Ambiguous Legacy
Muhammad ibn Abdullah (c. 570–632 CE) stands as one of history’s most consequential figures. Revered by Muslims as the final prophet of God, his name invokes both devotion and debate. Yet his prophetic legacy remains mired in ambiguity. Was Muhammad the true heir to the Abrahamic tradition, or a political-religious leader who forged a new faith amidst the tribal chaos of 7th-century Arabia? This article critically explores the ambiguous nature of Muhammad’s prophethood, focusing on historical gaps, theological departures, political use of revelation, and the complex ethical and imperial legacy he left behind.
1. Historical Ambiguity
Unlike figures such as Jesus or Moses, Muhammad lived in a relatively well-documented era, yet we lack contemporary external sources from his lifetime. Non-Islamic records that mention him appear decades after his death, and the earliest Islamic biographies (Sira) and hadith compilations emerged well over a century later—raising doubts about historical accuracy.
The biography of Muhammad by Ibn Ishaq (d. 767 CE), preserved by Ibn Hisham, was written over 120 years after Muhammad's death. The hadith collections of Bukhari and Muslim were compiled in the 9th century, using oral chains of transmission (isnad) that are themselves unverifiable. These sources, foundational to Islamic theology, emerged in a period when political and sectarian interests were shaping Islamic identity.
"The historical Muhammad remains elusive, shrouded in layers of apologetics and retrospective glorification." — Fred M. Donner, Muhammad and the Believers (2010)
2. The Qur’anic Message: Continuity or Divergence?
The Qur’an claims Muhammad did not bring a new religion but revived the monotheism of Abraham (Qur'an 2:135; 3:67). Yet this continuity is questionable.
The Qur'an's Abraham is portrayed as a proto-Muslim who performs acts of Islamic worship (e.g., building the Kaaba and calling for pilgrimage—Q 2:125-127), none of which are found in the Hebrew Bible. No Biblical text locates Abraham in Mecca or links him to Ishmael's progeny as future monotheists. Instead, the Bible gives the covenant to Isaac and Jacob (Genesis 17:19-21).
Moreover, many Qur'anic narratives parallel apocryphal Jewish and Christian texts rather than the canonical Bible, suggesting Muhammad's exposure to oral traditions rather than divine revelation.
"Much of the Qur'an seems to be a reworking of stories already in circulation among Jews and Christians in Arabia." — John Wansbrough, Quranic Studies (1977)
3. Revelation and Political Expediency
The Qur'an often provides timely revelations aligning with Muhammad's personal or political needs. This pattern raises questions about the objectivity and divine nature of the messages.
Zaynab bint Jahsh Incident: When Muhammad wished to marry his adopted son's wife, Zaynab, a revelation justified the action and abolished adoption as a legal bond (Q 33:37-38).
The Spoils of War: After the Battle of Badr, the Qur'an provided instructions on dividing war booty (Q 8:1, 8:41), with a fifth portion reserved for Muhammad.
Marriage Privileges: Muhammad was given special marital permissions (Q 33:50), including exemption from the typical limit of four wives.
Such revelations, seemingly serving personal or immediate community issues, undermine the perception of an impartial divine message.
4. Ethical and Moral Questions
Muhammad's actions, preserved in canonical Islamic sources, raise serious ethical concerns when judged by modern standards:
Sexual Ethics: Muhammad consummated his marriage to Aisha when she was nine years old, according to Sahih Bukhari (Hadith 5134).
Slavery and Concubinage: Female war captives were permitted for sexual use (Q 4:24), and Muhammad himself had slave concubines.
Mass Execution: After the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad ordered the execution of the Banu Qurayza—an estimated 600-900 Jewish men—for alleged treason (Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah).
Freedom of Belief: Though the Qur'an contains early verses on religious tolerance (Q 2:256), later verses command fighting those who disbelieve (Q 9:5, 9:29). Classical Islamic jurisprudence generally mandated death for apostates.
These moral inconsistencies challenge the idea of Muhammad as a universally ethical model.
5. Empire and Institutionalization of Prophetic Authority
Muhammad's death did not end his influence; rather, it inaugurated the fusion of religion and state. The caliphate system institutionalized the Sunnah (his sayings and actions) as law. Unlike Jesus, whose kingdom was "not of this world," Muhammad's leadership was deeply political and expansionist.
Islam spread rapidly across the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Asia—often by military means. The Qur'an's endorsement of fighting and subjugation (Q 9:29) was used to justify jihad and establish Muslim supremacy over non-Muslims (dhimmis).
"Muhammad's legacy is inseparable from the Islamic state's founding logic: religious truth backed by coercive power." — Patricia Crone, God's Rule (2004)
Conclusion: A Prophet Shaped by Power
Muhammad's legacy is undeniably profound. He united fractious Arab tribes, founded a major world religion, and reshaped the religious and political landscape of the Middle East. But the ambiguity of his prophethood persists. His message, though cloaked in Abrahamic language, diverges sharply from Jewish and Christian tradition. His revelations often reflect political needs rather than transcendental truths. His ethical model, preserved by Islamic tradition, conflicts with contemporary values.
Is Muhammad the seal of divine prophecy or the architect of a powerful 7th-century Arab ideology? That question, suspended between faith and reason, remains open for those who dare to examine his legacy critically.
References
Fred M. Donner, Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam, Harvard University Press, 2010.
John Wansbrough, Quranic Studies: Sources and Methods of Scriptural Interpretation, Oxford University Press, 1977.
Patricia Crone, God's Rule: Government and Islam, Columbia University Press, 2004.
Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, trans. A. Guillaume, Oxford University Press, 1955.
Sahih al-Bukhari, Hadith No. 5134.
The Qur'an, trans. M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, Oxford University Press, 2004.
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