Refuting Islam

Scientific Stagnation: How Orthodox Islam Suppressed Scientific Inquiry After the 12th Century

Introduction: A Golden Age Cut Short

Islamic apologists often boast of a "Golden Age" of Islamic science, a period between the 8th and 12th centuries when Muslim scholars supposedly led the world in scientific inquiry, medicine, mathematics, and philosophy. But what they rarely acknowledge is how this brief period of intellectual flourishing was followed by a catastrophic decline. After the 12th century, scientific progress in the Muslim world came to a virtual standstill, and Islamic civilization entered a period of intellectual stagnation that lasted for centuries.

What caused this dramatic decline? The answer is clear — the rise of orthodox Islamic theology, which declared reason inferior to revelation, condemned philosophy as dangerous, and imposed rigid religious dogma on all aspects of life. In this post, we will explore how orthodox Islam suppressed scientific inquiry and transformed the Muslim world from a center of knowledge to a desert of dogma.

1. The Rise and Fall of the Islamic Golden Age

1.1. The Golden Age: Borrowing, Not Innovating

The so-called Islamic Golden Age (8th–12th centuries) was a period of remarkable intellectual achievement in the Muslim world, but it was largely driven by:
- The Translation Movement: Greek, Persian, Indian, and Chinese texts were translated into Arabic.
- The influence of non-Muslim scholars: Many of the greatest scholars of this era were Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, or free thinkers living under Islamic rule.
The Golden Age was not a product of Islamic theology, but of a cosmopolitan empire that tolerated diverse ideas — for a time.

1.2. The Turning Point: The 12th Century Crisis

The decline of scientific inquiry in the Muslim world can be traced to the 12th century, a period marked by:
- The rise of orthodox Sunni theology, which declared that all knowledge must be based on the Quran and Hadith.
- The suppression of rationalist thinkers, philosophers, and scientists.
- The dominance of religious scholars (Ulema) who saw science as a threat to faith.

2. Al-Ghazali and the Death of Philosophy

2.1. The Incoherence of the Philosophers

The most influential figure in this intellectual collapse was Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (1058–1111), a Sunni theologian who launched a fierce attack on philosophy and science:
- His book "The Incoherence of the Philosophers" argued that reason was inferior to revelation and that philosophical inquiry was dangerous to faith.
- He condemned Muslim philosophers like Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina (Avicenna), accusing them of heresy.
Al-Ghazali's views became dominant in the Muslim world, leading to a rejection of rationalist philosophy.

2.2. The Triumph of Ash'arism: Faith Over Reason

Al-Ghazali’s attack on philosophy was part of a broader theological victory for Ash'arism, a school of thought that emphasized:
- The absolute power of Allah, who can change the laws of nature at will.
- The rejection of cause and effect — a view known as "occasionalism," which taught that events occur only because Allah wills them, not because of natural laws.
- The idea that rational inquiry is dangerous because it leads to doubt.
Ash'arism became the dominant theology in Sunni Islam, replacing the rationalist Mu'tazilite school.

3. The Persecution of Free Thinkers: A War on Reason

3.1. The Suppression of the Mu'tazila: Reason Declared Heresy

The Mu'tazila, an early rationalist school of Islamic theology, emphasized:
- The use of reason to understand faith.
- The idea that the Quran was a created text, not an eternal, unchangeable revelation.
But the Mu'tazila were violently suppressed by later Sunni rulers:
- The Caliph Al-Mutawakkil (847–861) declared Mu'tazilism heretical and imprisoned its scholars.
- Rationalist texts were destroyed, and Mu'tazilite scholars were persecuted.

3.2. The Persecution of Philosophers and Scientists

Throughout the Muslim world, philosophers and scientists who challenged religious orthodoxy were silenced:
- Ibn Rushd (Averroes, 1126–1198): A philosopher who defended Aristotle's philosophy but was exiled, and his works were burned.
- Al-Razi (Rhazes, 854–925): A Persian physician who criticized religion, calling it a source of ignorance. His books were burned, and he was attacked.
- Ibn al-Rawandi (827–911): An early critic of Islam whose works were destroyed, and his name was cursed.
Scientific inquiry became a dangerous endeavor, with religious scholars (Ulema) branding rationalist thinkers as heretics.

4. The Decline of Science: Faith Replaces Reason

4.1. The End of the House of Wisdom

The House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikma) in Baghdad, once a center of scientific research and translation, became a shadow of its former self:
- Under the influence of orthodox Sunni theology, it transformed from a place of free inquiry to a religious institution.
- When the Mongols sacked Baghdad in 1258, the House of Wisdom was destroyed — but by then, it had already ceased to be a center of knowledge.

4.2. The Rise of Religious Schools (Madrassas)

Scientific inquiry was replaced by religious education in Islamic schools (Madrassas):
- Students were taught to memorize the Quran and Hadith rather than study philosophy or science.
- Logic, mathematics, and natural science were seen as dangerous distractions from religious knowledge.
Islamic education became a system of rote memorization, with scholars focused on religious law rather than scientific exploration.

5. The Rejection of the Scientific Method: Why Islam Stagnated

5.1. The Concept of "Bid'ah" (Innovation)

Orthodox Islam declared that any new idea or practice that did not exist during the time of Muhammad was "Bid'ah" (innovation) and therefore sinful:
- Scientific theories that contradicted the Quran were seen as heresy.
- The study of natural laws was discouraged because it implied a universe governed by reason rather than divine will.
This hostility to innovation stifled scientific inquiry.

5.2. The Denial of Natural Laws

Orthodox Sunni theology taught that natural laws did not exist:
- The concept of "occasionalism" — that everything happens because Allah wills it — destroyed the idea of cause and effect.
- Scientific inquiry was seen as pointless because the universe was a series of divine miracles, not a rational system.

5.3. The Replacement of Inquiry with Obedience

Islamic scholars (Ulema) became gatekeepers of religious orthodoxy:
- Questioning religious teachings was seen as a sign of disbelief.
- Free thinkers were silenced, imprisoned, or executed.
The Muslim world, once a center of knowledge, became a rigid, dogmatic society hostile to new ideas.

6. The Verdict: How Orthodox Islam Killed Science

The Islamic world once experienced a brief period of intellectual flourishing, but this Golden Age was a borrowed heritage — a legacy of Greek, Persian, Indian, and Chinese knowledge. When orthodox Islam asserted itself, scientific inquiry was crushed. Reason was declared dangerous. Philosophy was condemned. Rational thinkers were persecuted.

For a religion that claims to be a source of knowledge, orthodox Islam has been a force of ignorance, transforming the Muslim world from a center of learning to a desert of dogma.